Exams play an important role in our education system.
They serve as a way to assess student’s understanding and knowledge of the material taught in class.
However, exams also have a negative impact on students; for many, exam stress and anxiety become overwhelming. It has been reported that around 80 percent of high school students suffer from exam stress, anxiety, and examophobia.
This can lead to a decrease in performance and hinder their ability to effectively demonstrate their knowledge.
Therefore, it is crucial for students to develop effective study techniques, exam hacks and strategies to overcome exam stress and perform well in different types of exams.
The anticipation of tests and having some knowledge about them can often alleviate the tension that students experience.
But before we get into the different types of exams.
Allow us to introduce you to the man who is the source of every student’s worst nightmare.
Who invented exams?
Henry Fischel is the man who first invented the concept of examination!
Exams have been a common method of assessing knowledge and skills for centuries, with Henry Fischel’s contribution being significant in shaping this educational practice.
His invention of exams aimed to create a standardized way of evaluating students’ understanding and retention of information. Since then, exams have become an integral part of the education system, challenging students to showcase their learning and providing educators with valuable insights into their progress.
Types Of Exams
Written Exams
Written exams are one of the most common types of exams used in educational settings. They typically require students to answer questions or complete tasks on paper or a computer, testing their ability to recall and apply knowledge. These exams often cover a wide range of topics. They provide a structured and objective way for educators to assess students’ comprehension and critical thinking skills.
1. Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs)
Multiple-choice questions (MCQs) are a popular format for written exams. They present students with a question and a set of possible answers, requiring them to select the correct option. MCQs are efficient for assessing a large amount of content in a short period of time and can measure both factual knowledge and higher-order thinking skills.
2. Short Answer Questions
Short-answer questions require students to provide a brief response or explanation to a specific question or prompt. These types of questions allow teachers to assess student’s understanding of key concepts and their ability to articulate their thoughts concisely. Short-answer questions can also encourage critical thinking and problem-solving skills as students must analyze information and apply it in their responses.
3. Essay Questions
Essay questions require students to provide a more in-depth and comprehensive response to a specific prompt or topic. These types of questions allow teachers to assess student’s ability to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information, as well as their writing skills. Essay questions also provide an opportunity for students to demonstrate their creativity and ability to construct a well-organized and coherent argument or explanation.
4. Fill-in-the-Blank Questions
Fill-in-the-blank questions require students to recall specific information and provide a single word or phrase to complete a sentence. These types of questions are useful for assessing students’ knowledge and understanding of key concepts or facts. They can also help teachers identify any gaps in students’ learning and guide further instruction.
5. True/False Questions
True/false questions are a common type of assessment that require students to determine whether a statement is true or false.
Teachers carefully design true/false questions to ensure they accurately assess students’ knowledge and comprehension.
6. Matching Questions
Matching questions are a type of assessment where students are required to match items from one column to items in another column based on their relationships or similarities. This type of question can be used to test students’ ability to make connections and identify patterns or similarities between different concepts or terms. It also encourages students to make informed decisions about the correct matches.
7. Diagram-Based Questions
Diagram-based questions are another type of assessment that requires students to interpret and analyze information presented in a visual format, such as a diagram or chart. These questions assess students’ ability to understand and apply concepts in a visual context.
Diagram-based questions can be particularly useful for subjects like science or mathematics, where visual representations play a significant role in understanding complex concepts.
8. Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Questions
Critical thinking and problem-solving questions are a type of assessment that challenges students to apply their knowledge and skills to solve real-world problems.
It takes analytical reasoning, critical thinking, and the capacity to recognize and apply suitable tactics to answer these questions.
These questions not only assess students’ understanding of concepts but also their ability to apply them in practical situations.
By including such questions in assessments, educators can evaluate students’ higher-order thinking skills and their ability to think creatively and independently.
Oral exams
These involve verbal questioning by an examiner or a panel of examiners and allow students to demonstrate their understanding and communication skills. This type of assessment also provides an opportunity for students to articulate their thoughts and reasoning in a clear and concise manner, building effective oral communication abilities.
1. Structured Oral Exams
Structured oral exams are a variation of oral exams where students are given a specific set of questions or prompts to respond to. This format allows for a more standardized assessment and ensures that all students are evaluated on the same criteria.
These exams follow a predetermined format where the examiner asks specific questions related to the subject matter. It could involve a set of questions covering various topics or concepts.
2. Unstructured Oral Exams
Unstructured oral exams, on the other hand, do not follow a predetermined format and allow for more open-ended responses from students.
In this type of exam, students are often given a broad topic or problem to discuss and are expected to demonstrate their knowledge and critical thinking skills by articulating their thoughts in a coherent manner.
This format encourages students to think on their feet and adapt their responses based on the examiner’s follow-up questions or prompts.
3. Viva Voce Exams
Viva voce exams, also known as oral defenses or vivas, are commonly used in academic settings to assess a student’s understanding and ability to defend their research or thesis.
These exams typically involve a panel of examiners who ask the student questions about their work, challenging them to explain and justify their findings.
The purpose of a viva voce exam is to evaluate the depth of the student’s knowledge, their ability to think critically, and their communication skills in presenting and defending their research.
4. Language Proficiency Exams
Language proficiency exams are assessments designed to measure a person’s ability to understand and use a specific language.
These exams often include sections on reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills, and may be used for various purposes such as admission to educational institutions or job applications.
The aim of language proficiency exams is to determine an individual’s level of fluency and accuracy in the target language, as well as their ability to effectively communicate and comprehend written and spoken texts.
5. Role-Play Exams
Role-play exams are a type of assessment that simulates real-life scenarios in which individuals are required to demonstrate their language skills in practical situations.
These exams typically involve role-playing specific roles or situations, allowing test-takers to showcase their ability to communicate effectively, problem-solve, and adapt their language use accordingly.
Role-play exams are particularly useful in assessing an individual’s ability to apply language skills in real-world contexts, providing a more authentic evaluation of their language proficiency.
This type of exam is particularly common in language or communication courses.
6. Group Oral Exams
Another type of assessment commonly used in language or communication courses is group oral exams.
These exams involve multiple test-takers engaging in a discussion or debate on a specific topic, allowing them to demonstrate their ability to express their opinions, listen and respond to others, and collaborate effectively in a group setting.
Group oral exams provide a valuable opportunity for students to showcase their language skills in interactive and dynamic situations, mirroring real-life communication scenarios.
It evaluates their collaborative skills, communication, and ability to articulate ideas.
7. Presentation-Based Exams
In these exams, students are required to prepare and deliver a presentation on a given topic followed by a question-and-answer session with the examiners, allowing them to showcase their research and public speaking skills.
Presentation-based exams not only assess students’ ability to effectively communicate information, but also their ability to engage and captivate an audience.
This type of assessment encourages students to develop their presentation skills, which are essential in many professional settings.
Practical Exams
Practical exams assess students’ ability to apply theoretical knowledge and demonstrate practical skills in a specific field.
These exams often involve hands-on tasks or simulations that replicate real-life scenarios, allowing students to showcase their problem-solving abilities and decision-making skills. Practical exams are particularly valuable in fields such as medicine, engineering, culinary arts, or vocational studies where practical application is crucial for success.
Such types of exams provide students with valuable feedback on their performance and areas for improvement, helping them to further develop their skills and expertise.
1. Laboratory Experiments
Laboratory experiments allow students to apply theoretical knowledge in a controlled setting, conducting scientific investigations and collecting data.
They provide an opportunity for students to develop their critical thinking and analytical skills, as well as enhance their understanding of scientific concepts through hands-on experimentation.
These exams assess students’ ability to conduct experiments, record data accurately, analyze results, and draw conclusions.
Moreover, laboratory experiments encourage collaboration and teamwork among students, as they often require group work and communication to successfully complete the tasks at hand.
2. Performance Assessments
Performance assessments provide a comprehensive evaluation of students’ practical skills and application of theoretical knowledge.
These assessments also allow students to demonstrate their ability to troubleshoot and problem-solve in real-time situations, preparing them for future scientific research or professional careers in the field.
These tests evaluate skills in areas like music, drama, or dance. Students showcase their abilities through live performances, demonstrating techniques, interpretation, and creativity.
3. Clinical Assessments
Clinical assessments focus on evaluating students’ abilities in a clinical setting, such as healthcare or psychology.
These assessments involve observing students as they interact with patients or clients, assessing their ability to apply theoretical knowledge to real-life situations and make informed decisions.
They also assess students’ communication skills, empathy, and professionalism, which are crucial for success in these fields.
In fields like medicine, nursing, or psychology, practical exams involve interacting with patients, conducting assessments, diagnosing problems, and proposing treatment plans.
4. Technical Skills Tests
Technical skills tests are common in vocational or technical training programs where students are required to demonstrate their proficiency in specific technical skills related to their chosen field.
These tests often involve hands-on tasks such as operating machinery, troubleshooting equipment, or performing complex procedures.
By assessing students’ technical skills, educators can ensure that they are adequately prepared for the practical demands of their future careers.
Skills in trades such as carpentry, plumbing, electrical work, automotive repair, and other trades are evaluated through these examinations.
5. Design or Project-Based Assessments
These assessments require students to apply their knowledge and skills to complete a specific project or design.
Students may be tasked with designing something practical, such as architectural plans, engineering models, or creative projects, demonstrating their ability to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world scenarios.
6. Fieldwork Assessments
These assessments involve students conducting research or practical work outside of the classroom.
This could include field trips, internships, or hands-on experiments.
Fieldwork assessments provide students with valuable opportunities to gain real-world experience and apply their learning in authentic settings.
These exams occur in disciplines like geography, ecology, or environmental science, where students gather data in the field, analyze it, and present findings or recommendations.
7. Practical Examinations in Computing
Practical examinations in computing are designed to assess students’ ability to apply their knowledge and skills in real-world computing scenarios.
These exams often require students to complete tasks such as coding, software designing and development, network configuration, and troubleshooting.
These exams allow students to demonstrate their ability to work independently and think critically when faced with complex technical problems.
Standardized Exams
A exam that is given and scored consistently, or in a “standard” way, is called standardized exam. Standardized exams are created with similar questions and interpretations, and they follow predefined guidelines for administration and scoring.
The foundation of a standardized exam is consistency: every test taker must respond to the same questions, and every response is scored according to a predefined standard.
Open-Book Exams
These are the types of exams where students are allowed to bring and use reference materials during the exam.
This type of exam focuses more on assessing students’ understanding and application of concepts rather than memorization.
Open-book exams encourage students to think critically and apply their knowledge to solve complex problems, as they need to navigate through their resources effectively to find the relevant information.
These exams simulate real-world scenarios where professionals have access to resources while working on projects or tasks.
Open-book exams vary in structure and format but generally fall into a few categories.
1. Resource-Based Exams
In resource-based exams, students are provided with a variety of materials such as textbooks, articles, and online resources that they can use to answer the exam questions.
This type of exam requires students to have strong research skills and the ability to synthesize information from different sources.
2. Take-Home Exams
Take-home exams are another type of open-book exam where students are given a set of questions or tasks to complete within a specified time frame, usually outside of the classroom.
These exams allow students to research and gather information at their own pace, and require thorough analysis to provide well-reasoned responses.
They often involve more complex and in-depth questions compared to traditional closed-book exams, as students have more time to delve into the subject matter.
3. Hybrid Exams
Hybrid exams combine elements of both closed-book and open-book exams. In these exams, students are provided with some resources or materials during the exam, but are not allowed to use any external sources.
This type of exam tests a student’s ability to apply their knowledge and problem-solving skills using limited resources, while still requiring them to rely on their own understanding and memory.
This format tests different skills, requiring both memorization and application of knowledge.
4. Scenario-Based Exams (Case Study)
Scenario-based exams, also known as case study exams, present students with real-life situations or scenarios that they must analyze and respond to.
These exams require students to apply their knowledge and problem-solving skills in a practical context, rather than simply regurgitating information.
By simulating real-world scenarios, these exams provide a more holistic assessment of a student’s abilities and readiness for professional practice.
5. Problem-Solving Exams
Problem-solving exams are designed to assess a student’s ability to analyze and solve complex problems.
These exams typically present students with a complex and specific problem or question that requires them to apply principles and concepts from their resources to solve them.
Unlike traditional exams that focus on memorization, problem-solving exams emphasize the application of knowledge in practical situations.
This type of assessment helps students develop their analytical skills and prepares them for real-world challenges they may encounter in their future careers.
6. Essay-Based Exams
Another type of exam commonly used in education is the essay-based exam. These exams require students to demonstrate their understanding of a topic by writing a well-structured and coherent essay.
Essay-based exams assess a student’s ability to critically analyze information, form arguments, and communicate their thoughts effectively.
This type of assessment encourages students to think deeply about the subject matter and develop their writing skills, which are valuable in various academic and professional settings.
Students may be given broad essay questions or prompts that require them to draw from various resources to construct well-reasoned arguments or analyses. The focus here is on synthesizing information and demonstrating understanding through logical written responses.
Closed-Book Exams
Closed-book exams, on the other hand, test a student’s ability to recall and apply specific knowledge within a limited time frame.
These exams often require students to memorize and regurgitate facts, formulas, or concepts without the aid of any external resources.
While closed-book exams may not necessarily assess critical thinking or writing skills directly, they can still provide valuable insights into a student’s grasp of foundational knowledge and their ability to apply it in real-time situations.
1. Traditional Written Exams
Traditional written exams are a common form of assessment that typically involve answering questions or completing tasks using pen and paper.
These exams can cover a wide range of topics and may require students to demonstrate their understanding of complex concepts, analyze information, and communicate their ideas effectively.
While they may not always allow for extensive elaboration or discussion, traditional written exams can provide a structured and efficient way to evaluate a student’s knowledge and comprehension of the material.
These exams typically consist of questions that assess a student’s understanding of the material without access to textbooks, notes, or any aids. They can include multiple-choice, short answer, or essay questions.
2. Problem-Solving Exams
On the other hand, problem-solving exams go beyond assessing knowledge and comprehension by requiring students to apply their understanding to solve complex problems or scenarios.
These exams often involve real-world situations or case studies, challenging students to think critically and creatively to find solutions.
Problem-solving exams can be particularly effective in evaluating a student’s ability to think analytically and problem-solve in a practical context.
These exams evaluate a student’s ability to solve complex problems, often found in subjects like mathematics, physics, or engineering. These exams require applying knowledge and concepts without any external references.
3. Theory-Based Exams
Theory-based exams assess a student’s understanding of concepts and principles within a particular subject.
These exams typically require students to demonstrate their knowledge through written responses or multiple-choice questions.
Theory-based exams are commonly used in subjects such as history, literature, or philosophy, where students are expected to analyze and interpret information rather than solve practical problems.
4. Language Proficiency Tests
Language proficiency tests assess a student’s ability to understand and communicate in a specific language.
These tests often evaluate skills such as reading comprehension, writing, listening, and speaking.
They are commonly used for assessing language proficiency for academic or professional purposes, such as admission to universities or job applications in multinational companies.
Language proficiency tests can be standardized, like the TOEFL or IELTS, or customized according to specific requirements, such as the language proficiency test for translators or interpreters.
5. Practical Closed-Book Exams
These types of exams are designed to evaluate a student’s ability to apply their knowledge and skills in real-life situations.
They often require critical thinking and problem-solving skills, as students must rely solely on their understanding and practical experience.
Practical closed-book exams can provide a more accurate assessment of a student’s abilities in certain fields, as they simulate real-world scenarios where access to reference materials may be limited or unavailable.
They help to assess hands-on skills, such as performing experiments in science or demonstrating techniques in subjects like art or music, without access to written instructions or guides.
6. Closed-Book Open-Ended Exams
Closed-book open-ended exams can also be effective in evaluating a student’s ability to think creatively and independently.
These exams require students to apply their knowledge and skills to complex problems or scenarios without the aid of reference materials.
These exams can help identify gaps in a student’s understanding or areas where further study may be needed, as they require a deeper level of comprehension and application of knowledge.
Final Exams
Final exams are conducted at the end of a course or semester to assess a student’s overall understanding of the material covered.
These exams generally provide a standardized way to measure learning outcomes and can be graded quickly and efficiently.
1. Comprehensive Written Exams
Comprehensive written exams typically consist of a variety of question formats, such as multiple-choice, short answer, and essay questions. These exams assess a student’s ability to recall information, analyze concepts, and demonstrate critical thinking skills. They often cover a wide range of topics and require students to synthesize information from throughout the course.
2. Oral Exams
Oral exams, on the other hand, assess a student’s ability to articulate their knowledge and understanding verbally.
These exams often involve a one-on-one conversation with the instructor or a panel of examiners, where students are asked questions and must respond in real-time.
Oral exams can be particularly useful for assessing communication skills, as well as the ability to think on one’s feet and provide coherent explanations.
They also allow for immediate feedback and clarification of any misunderstandings.
3. Practical Demonstrations
Practical demonstrations are a form of assessment that allows students to showcase their skills and apply their knowledge in a hands-on manner.
These assessments often involve performing tasks or completing projects that simulate real-world scenarios.
Practical demonstrations can be especially beneficial for subjects that require practical application, such as science experiments or artistic performances. They provide an opportunity for students to demonstrate their understanding and proficiency in a tangible way, while also allowing for feedback and evaluation of their performance.
4. Portfolio Assessments
Portfolio assessments involve students compiling a collection of their work over a period of time, which can include written assignments, projects, and other evidence of their learning.
Portfolio assessments provide a comprehensive view of a student’s progress and growth, allowing for a more holistic evaluation of their skills and knowledge.
These types of assessments encourage reflection and self-assessment as students curate their own portfolio to showcase their best work.
5. Capstone Projects
Capstone projects are culminating assignments that require students to apply their knowledge and skills to solve real-world problems or complete a significant project. These projects often involve extensive research, findings, critical thinking, and collaboration with peers or professionals in the field.
Capstone projects provide students with an opportunity to demonstrate their ability to integrate and apply what they have learned throughout their academic journey. They also allow for feedback and evaluation from mentors or experts, further enhancing the learning experience.
6. Thesis or Dissertation Defenses
Thesis or dissertation defenses are significant projects that students undertake to showcase their expertise in a specific area of study.
These defenses involve presenting and defending their research findings and conclusions in front of a panel of faculty members or experts in the field.
This process not only assesses the student’s knowledge and understanding but also provides an opportunity for valuable discussions and insights from experienced professionals.
For higher education levels, students defend their thesis or dissertation in front of a committee, showcasing their expertise in a particular field.
7. Take-Home Exams
Students receive exam questions and are given a designated period to complete and submit their responses, often involving longer, comprehensive answers.
These exams allow students to demonstrate their understanding of course material and apply it to real-world scenarios or problem-solving tasks.
They often require extensive research, critical thinking, and time management skills. Take-home exams provide a more flexible and less time-constrained environment for students to showcase their knowledge and abilities compared to traditional in-class exams.
8. Open-Book Final Exams
Open-book final exams allow students to refer to their course materials, textbooks, notes, specific materials, and resources while answering questions.
This format tests not only a student’s ability to recall information but also their ability to apply it in a practical context.
Open-book exams encourage students to think critically and analyze information, as they must determine which resources are most relevant and how to effectively use them in their responses.
9. Closed-Book Final Exams
Closed-book final exams, on the other hand, require students to rely solely on their memory and understanding of the course material.
These exams assess a student’s ability to retain information and demonstrate their comprehension without any external resources.
Closed-book exams often involve more complex and analytical questions that require students to think deeply and critically about the subject matter. This format challenges students to develop a thorough understanding of the material and apply it in a comprehensive manner.
10. Mixed-Format Exams
Mixed-format exams combine elements of written, oral, practical, or project-based assessments to comprehensively evaluate different skills and knowledge areas.
These exams may include a combination of multiple-choice questions, short answer questions, and essay questions.
This format allows students to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the material while also testing their ability to recall information without external resources.
Mixed-format exams provide a more holistic assessment of students’ abilities.
Diagnostic Exams
Diagnostic exams are used to assess students’ current knowledge and identify areas of weakness or gaps in understanding.
These exams are often administered at the beginning of a course to help instructors tailor their teaching and support to meet the needs of individual students.
They can also be used periodically throughout a course to track progress and provide targeted feedback for improvement.
1. Pre-Assessment Diagnostic Tests
Pre-assessment diagnostic tests are a valuable tool for educators to gauge students’ prior knowledge and skills before beginning a new unit or topic.
These tests allow teachers to identify any misconceptions or gaps in understanding that may need to be addressed in their instruction.
By administering pre-assessment diagnostic tests, instructors can effectively differentiate their teaching strategies and provide targeted interventions for individual students, ensuring a more personalized and effective learning experience.
2. Placement Tests
Placement tests are another type of diagnostic test that educators use to determine the appropriate level or course for students.
These tests assess students’ knowledge and skills in a specific subject area and help place them in the appropriate instructional setting.
Placement tests are especially useful in large educational institutions or programs with multiple levels or tracks, as they ensure that students are placed in classes that align with their abilities and allow them to maximize their learning potential. Placement tests can also help streamline the curriculum and ensure that students are not bored or overwhelmed by material that is too easy or too difficult for them.
3. Formative Assessments
Formative assessments are ongoing evaluations that provide feedback to both students and teachers on the progress of learning.
These assessments are typically low-stakes and focus on identifying areas of strength and areas that need improvement.
They can take various forms, such as quizzes, projects, or class discussions, and they allow teachers to adjust their instruction to meet the individual needs of students.
Formative assessments also empower students to take ownership of their learning by helping them identify their strengths and weaknesses and set goals for improvement.
4. Skills-Based Diagnostic Tests
Skills-Based Diagnostic tests are a type of diagnostic test that can be used to identify specific skills or knowledge gaps in students.
These tests are designed to assess the mastery of specific learning objectives, such as reading comprehension, mathematical problem solving, or writing proficiency, and provide targeted feedback for improvement.
By pinpointing areas of weakness, teachers can tailor their instruction to address these specific needs and help students make progress towards their learning goals.
These tests can also help students understand their own strengths and weaknesses, allowing them to focus their efforts on areas that require more attention.
5. Standardized Diagnostic Tests
Standardized diagnostic tests are administered to a large group of students and provide valuable data on the overall performance and achievement gaps within a school or district.
This information can be used to identify trends and patterns, inform curriculum development, and allocate resources effectively.
These tests can help measure the effectiveness of educational interventions and initiatives, enabling educators to make informed decisions about instructional strategies and support systems.
They are utilized across educational systems to measure students’ proficiency in a standardized manner, often focusing on core subjects like math, language arts, or science.
6. Adaptive Diagnostic Assessments
Another type of assessment used in education is adaptive diagnostic assessment. These assessments are designed to provide personalized feedback to students by adjusting the difficulty level of questions based on their responses.
This allows educators to identify specific areas of strength and weakness for each student, enabling targeted instruction and intervention.
Adaptive diagnostic assessments can also help track students’ progress over time and provide valuable data for individualized learning plans.
7. Curriculum-Based Diagnostic Tests
Curriculum-based diagnostic tests are another form of assessment commonly used in education.
These tests are aligned with the curriculum being taught and assess students’ understanding of specific content areas.
By evaluating students’ knowledge and skills in relation to the curriculum, educators can identify any gaps or misconceptions that need to be addressed. Curriculum-based diagnostic tests also provide valuable information for instructional planning and can help guide teachers in designing effective lessons that meet the needs of their students.
8. Reading Assessments
Reading assessments focus on evaluating students’ reading abilities including decoding, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension skills.
These assessments can include tasks such as reading passages, answering questions, and identifying main ideas or supporting details.
They provide insight into students’ strengths and weaknesses in reading, allowing educators to tailor instruction to meet individual needs.
Moreover, reading assessments can help identify any potential learning disabilities or difficulties that may require further intervention or support.
9. Mathematics Diagnostics
Mathematics diagnostics are assessments that are designed to evaluate students’ mathematical abilities, reasoning, problem-solving skills, and conceptual understanding of various mathematical topics and skills.
These assessments can include tasks such as solving mathematical problems, analyzing data, and demonstrating understanding of mathematical concepts.
They provide educators with valuable information about students’ mathematical strengths and areas for improvement.
10. Language Proficiency Diagnostics
Language proficiency diagnostics are assessments that measure a student’s ability to understand and use a particular language.
These assessments evaluate skills such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking in the target language.
They help educators identify students’ language strengths and weaknesses, allowing for targeted instruction and support.
Language proficiency diagnostics can also be used to determine appropriate placement in language courses or programs.
Conclusion
Various kinds of examinations each play an important part in evaluating various aspects of learning, and they are designed to accommodate a wide range of learning styles and goals. It is helpful for educators to have an understanding of these various exam forms because it enables them to construct assessments that accurately measure student comprehension and lead tailored learning techniques.
